List of Solar System objects by size
This is a list of Solar System objects by size, arranged in descending order of mean volumetric radius. The list can also be partially sorted according to an object's mass and, for the largest objects, volume, density and surface gravity. This list contains the Sun, the planets, (candidate) dwarf planets, many of the larger small Solar System bodies (which includes the asteroids), all named natural satellites, and a number of smaller objects of historical or scientific interest, such as comets and near-Earth objects.
The ordering may be different depending on whether one chooses radius or mass, because some objects are denser than others. For instance Uranus is bigger than Neptune but less massive, and although Ganymede and Titan are larger than Mercury, they have less than half its mass. This means some objects in the lower tables, despite their smaller radii, may be more massive than objects in the upper tables because they have a higher density.
Many trans-Neptunian objects (TNOs) have been discovered, and their approximate locations in this list are shown, even though there can be a large uncertainty in their measurement.
Solar System objects more massive than 1021 kilograms (one yottagram [Yg]) are known or expected to be approximately spherical. Astronomical bodies relax into rounded shapes (ellipsoids), achieving hydrostatic equilibrium, when the gravity of their mass is sufficient to overcome the structural strength of their material. These are dubbed "regular". Objects made of ice become regular more easily than those made of rock, and many icy objects are spheroidal at far lower sizes. The cutoff boundary for regularity is somewhere between 100 km and 200 km in radius.[1]
The larger objects in the mass range between 1018 kg to 1021 kg (1 to 1000 zettagrams (Zg)) such as Tethys, Ceres, and Mimas, have relaxed to an equilibrium oblate spheroid due to their gravity, while the less massive rubble piles (e.g. Amalthea and Janus) are roughly rounded, but not spherical, dubbed "irregular".
Spheroidal bodies typically have some polar flattening due to the centrifugal force from their rotation, but a characteristic feature of the "irregular"-shaped bodies is that there is a significant difference in the length of their two equatorial diameters.
There can be difficulty in figuring out the diameter (within a factor of about 2) for typical objects beyond Saturn. (See 2060 Chiron as an example.) For TNOs there is some confidence in the diameters, but for non-binary TNOs there is no real confidence in the "unreferenced wiki-assumed" masses/densities. Many TNOs are just assumed to have a density of 2.0 g/cm3, though it is just as likely that they have a comet-like density of only 0.5 g/cm3.[2] Thus most provisional TNOs are not given an MEarth value to prevent from cluttering the list with too many assumptions that could be off by an order of magnitude. For example, if a TNO is poorly assumed to have a mass of 3.59×1020 kg based on a radius of 350 km with a density of 2 g/cm3 and is later discovered to only have a radius of 175 km with a density of 1 g/cm3, the mass estimate would be only 2.24×1019 kg.
The sizes and masses of many of the moons of Jupiter and Saturn are fairly well known due to numerous observations and interactions of the Galileo and Cassini orbiters. But many of the moons with a radius less than ~100 km, such as Jupiter's Himalia, still have unknown masses with assumed densities.[3] Again, as we get further from the Sun than Saturn, things get less clear. There has not yet been an orbiter around Uranus or Neptune for long-term study of the moons. For the small outer irregular moons of Uranus, such as Sycorax, which were not discovered by the Voyager 2 flyby, even different NASA web pages, such as the National Space Science Data Center[4] and JPL Solar System Dynamics,[3] have somewhat contradictory size and albedo estimates depending on which research paper is being cited.
Data for objects has varying reliability including uncertainties in the figures for mass and radius, and irregularities in the shape and density, with accuracy often depending on how close it is to Earth or if it has been visited by a probe.
List
Objects above ≈300 km in radius
Anything above this size is probably in hydrostatic equilibrium, but some bodies near the end of this list may not. However, their predicted or measured size would need to be "grossly in error" or their composition primarily rocky, for them not to be.[5] A lot of the values are manually calculated assuming sphericity. Size may or may not include an object's atmosphere. The diameter of Saturn's rings is around 364,900 km, much wider than Jupiter, but its gaseous sphere is smaller.
Body |
Image |
Mean radius
(km) |
Mean radius
(R⊕) |
Volume
(109 km3) |
Volume
(V⊕) |
Mass
×1021 kg
(Yg) |
Mass
(M⊕) |
Density[6]
g/cm3 |
Surface gravity
(m/s2) |
Surface gravity
(⊕) |
Type of object |
Shape |
Sun |
|
696,000 |
109.25 |
1,412,000,000 |
1,303,781 |
1,989,100,000 |
332,837 |
1.409 |
274.0 |
28.02 |
Star |
regular |
Jupiter |
|
69,911 |
10.97 |
1,431,280 |
1,321 |
1,898,600 |
317.83 |
1.33 |
24.79 |
2.535 |
Planet (gas giant) |
regular |
Saturn |
|
58,232
(w/o rings) |
9.14 |
827,130 |
764 |
568,460 |
95.159 |
0.70 |
10.445 |
1.06 |
Planet (gas giant) |
regular |
Uranus |
|
25,362 |
3.98 |
68,340 |
63.1 |
86,832 |
14.536 |
1.30 |
8.87 |
0.90 |
Planet (gas giant) |
regular |
Neptune |
|
24,622 |
3.86 |
62,540 |
57.7 |
102,430 |
17.147 |
1.76 |
11.15 |
1.140 |
Planet (gas giant) |
regular |
Earth |
|
6,371.0 |
1 |
1,083.21 |
1 |
5,973.6 |
1 |
5.515 |
9.78033 |
0.99732 |
Planet (terrestrial) |
regular |
Venus |
|
6,051.8
(w/o gas) |
0.950 |
928.43 |
0.857 |
4,868.5 |
0.815 |
5.24 |
8.872 |
0.905 |
Planet (terrestrial) |
regular |
Mars |
|
3,390.0 |
0.532 |
163.18 |
0.151 |
641.85 |
0.107 |
3.94 |
3.7 |
0.38 |
Planet (terrestrial) |
regular |
Ganymede†
Jupiter III |
|
2,631.2 |
0.413 |
76.30 |
0.0704 |
148.2 |
0.0248 |
1.936 |
1.428 |
0.15 |
Satellite of Jupiter |
regular |
Titan†
Saturn VI |
|
2,576[7]
(w/o gas) |
0.404 |
71.52 |
0.0660 |
134.5 |
0.0225 |
1.88 |
1.354 |
0.14 |
Satellite of Saturn |
regular |
Mercury |
|
2,439.7 |
0.383 |
60.83 |
0.0562 |
330.2 |
0.0553 |
5.43 |
3.7 |
0.38 |
Planet (terrestrial) |
regular |
Callisto†
Jupiter IV |
|
2,410.3 |
0.378 |
58.65 |
0.0541 |
107.6 |
0.018 |
1.83 |
1.23603 |
0.126 |
Satellite of Jupiter |
regular |
Io†
Jupiter I |
|
1,821.5 |
0.286 |
25.32 |
0.0234 |
89.3 |
0.015 |
3.528 |
1.797 |
0.183 |
Satellite of Jupiter |
regular |
Moon |
|
1,737.1 |
0.273 |
21.958 |
0.0203 |
73.5 |
0.0123 |
3.3464 |
1.625 |
0.166 |
Satellite of Earth |
regular |
Europa†
Jupiter II |
|
1,561 |
0.245 |
15.93 |
0.0147 |
48 |
0.00803 |
3.01 |
1.316 |
0.134 |
Satellite of Jupiter |
regular |
Triton†
Neptune I |
|
1,353.4 |
0.212 |
10.38 |
0.0096 |
21.5 |
0.00359 |
2.061 |
0.782 |
0.0797 |
Satellite of Neptune |
regular |
ErisR
136199 |
|
1,163[8] |
0.182 |
7 |
0.007 |
16.7[9] |
0.0027 |
2.25 |
0.662 |
0.0677 |
Dwarf planet — SDO — binary |
regular |
PlutoR
134340 |
|
1,161[10]
(w/o gas) |
0.181 |
7.15 |
0.0066 |
13.105 |
0.0022 |
2.0 |
0.61 |
0.062 |
Dwarf planet —
KBO |
regular |
Titania‡
Uranus III |
|
788.9 |
0.124 |
2.06 |
0.0019 |
3.526 |
0.00059 |
1.72 |
0.378 |
0.0385 |
Satellite of Uranus |
regular |
Rhea‡
Saturn V |
|
764.1[11] |
0.12 |
1.87 |
0.0017 |
2.3166 |
0.00039 |
1.23 |
0.26 |
0.027 |
Satellite of Saturn |
regular |
Oberon†
Uranus IV |
|
761.4 |
0.12 |
1.85 |
0.0017 |
3.014 |
0.0005 |
1.63 |
0.347 |
0.035 |
Satellite of Uranus |
regular |
Iapetus†
Saturn VIII |
|
735.6[12] |
0.113 |
1.55 |
0.0014 |
1.9739 |
0.00033 |
1.08 |
0.223 |
0.0227 |
Satellite of Saturn |
regular |
MakemakeRA
136472 |
|
710[13] |
0.126
–0.157 |
1.8 |
0.002 |
3 |
0.00067 |
2.0 |
0.4 |
0.04 |
Dwarf planet —
KBO |
regular |
Charon†
Pluto I |
|
603.5[14] |
0.095 |
0.87 |
0.0008 |
1.52 |
0.00025 |
1.65 |
0.279 |
0.028 |
Satellite of Pluto |
regular |
SednaRA
90377 |
|
600–800[15] |
0.09
–0.14 |
1.73 |
0.0016 |
3 |
0.00050 |
2.0 |
0.33
–0.50 |
0.0337
–0.0511 |
Detached object |
unknown |
2007 OR10
225088
"Snow White" |
|
≈600[16]–710[5] |
0.094 |
0.904 |
0.0008 |
1.81P |
0.0003 |
2.0P |
0.168 |
0.017 |
SDO |
unknown |
Umbriel†
Uranus II |
|
584.7 |
0.092 |
0.84 |
0.0008 |
1.2 |
0.00020 |
1.4 |
0.234 |
0.024 |
Satellite of Uranus |
regular |
Ariel ‡
Uranus I |
|
578.9 |
0.091 |
0.81 |
0.0008 |
1.35 |
0.00022 |
1.67 |
0.269 |
0.027 |
Satellite of Uranus |
regular |
HaumeaR
136108 |
|
575[17]–750[5] |
0.117 |
1.3–1.6 |
0.001 |
4.006 |
0.00069 |
2.551[18] |
0.44 |
0.045 |
Dwarf planet —
KBO — trinary |
regular (scalene ellipsoid) |
Dione†
Saturn IV |
|
561.6 |
0.088 |
0.73 |
0.0007 |
1.096 |
0.000183 |
1.48 |
0.232 |
0.0236 |
Satellite of Saturn |
regular |
Tethys‡
Saturn III |
|
533 |
0.083 |
0.624 |
0.0006 |
0.6173 |
0.000103 |
1.15 |
0.145 |
0.015 |
Satellite of Saturn |
regular |
Ceres‡
1 |
|
475 |
0.076 |
0.437 |
0.0004 |
0.95 |
0.000159 |
2.08 |
0.27 |
0.0275 |
Dwarf planet — Asteroid |
regular |
Quaoar
50000 |
|
445[19] |
0.07 |
0.37 |
0.0003 |
1.6[19] |
0.0003 |
4.2[19] |
0.125 |
0.013 |
KBO — Cubewano — binary |
unknown |
OrcusRA
90482 |
|
425[13] |
0.069
–0.08 |
0.4 |
0.0004 |
0.63A |
0.0001 |
1.5 |
0.234 |
0.023 |
KBO — Plutino — binary |
unknown |
2002 TC302 R
84522 |
|
410–570[20] |
0.09 |
0.786 |
0.0007 |
1.573P |
0.00026 |
2.0 |
0.321 |
0.033 |
KBO — 2:5 resonance |
unknown |
2007 UK126 9
229762 |
|
375[5] |
0.069 |
0.354 |
0.0003 |
0.708P |
0.0001 |
2.0 |
0.246 |
0.025 |
SDO |
unknown |
2005 UQ513 9
202421 |
|
375[5] |
0.074 |
0.443 |
0.0004 |
0.886P |
0.0001 |
2.0 |
0.278 |
0.0284 |
KBO — Cubewano |
unknown |
2003 MW12 9
174567 |
|
375[5] |
0.0658 |
0.308 |
0.0003 |
0.616P |
0.0001 |
2.0 |
0.228 |
0.02 |
KBO |
unknown |
2002 AW197 R
55565 |
|
370[5] |
0.0576 |
0.207 |
0.00019 |
0.414P |
0.000069 |
2.0 |
0.206 |
0.0211 |
KBO[21] |
unknown |
2005 QU182 9
303775 |
|
365[5] |
0.082 |
0.606 |
0.00056 |
1.21P |
0.0002 |
2.0 |
0.294 |
0.03 |
SDO[22] |
unknown |
2002 MS4 |
|
360[5]R |
0.057 |
0.203 |
0.00018 |
0.4005P |
0.000067 |
2.0P |
0.204 |
0.02086 |
KBO[21] |
unknown |
2007 JJ43
278361 |
|
350[5] |
|
TNO[21] |
unknown |
2003 AZ84 R
208996 |
|
345[5] |
0.0538 |
0.169 |
0.000156 |
0.53P |
5.66 E-5 |
2.0P |
0.172 |
0.02 |
KBO — Plutino — binary |
unknown |
2010 EK139 |
|
340[5] |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
SDO |
unknown |
2002 UX25 R
55637 |
|
340[5] |
0.0535 |
0.166 |
0.000153 |
0.331P |
0.0000554 |
2.0 |
0.191 |
0.01952 |
KBO — binary |
unknown |
2004 GV9 R
90568 |
|
340[5] |
0.0531 |
0.162 |
0.00015 |
0.325P |
0.0000534 |
2.0 |
0.19 |
0.0194 |
KBO |
unknown |
2006 QH1819 |
|
340[5] |
0.06 |
0.233 |
0.000215 |
0.467P |
0.00008 |
2.0 |
0.214 |
0.022 |
SDO |
unknown |
2005 RN43 9
145452 |
|
330[5] |
0.0573 |
0.2036 |
0.00019 |
0.407P |
0.000068 |
2.0 |
0.205 |
0.02096 |
KBO[21] |
unknown |
2010 KZ39 |
|
330[5] |
|
Detached object[23] or Cubewano[24] |
unknown |
IxionRA
28978 |
|
325[5] |
0.051 |
0.144 |
0.000133 |
0.3 |
5.0E-5 |
2.086 |
0.19 |
0.021 |
KBO |
unknown |
2004 XA192
230965 |
|
320[5] |
0.055 |
0.177 |
0.00016 |
0.354P |
0.000059 |
2.0 |
0.195 |
0.02 |
TNO[21] |
unknown |
2003 VS2
84922 |
|
315[5] |
0.057 |
0.203 |
0.00018 |
0.4005P |
0.000067 |
2.0 |
0.204 |
0.02086 |
KBO — Plutino[21] |
unknown |
2001 UR163 9
42301 |
|
305[5] |
0.05 |
0.134 |
0.00012 |
0.269P |
0.000045 |
2.0P |
0.178 |
0.018 |
SDO[21] |
unknown |
Salacia
120347 |
|
305[5] |
0.0455 |
0.102 |
0.00009 |
0.2P |
0.000034 |
2.0P |
0.159 |
0.016 |
KBO — binary |
unknown |
2010 RE64 |
|
305[5] |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
KBO |
unknown |
2010 RF43 |
|
305[5] |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
SDO |
unknown |
2004 PF115
175113 |
|
305[5] |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
KBO — Plutino |
unknown |
2003 UZ4139 |
|
300[5] |
0.048 |
0.116 |
0.00012 |
0.33P |
0.000055 |
2.0P |
0.241 |
0.0246 |
KBO — Plutino |
unknown |
2008 ST291 |
|
300[5] |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
SDO |
unknown |
2010 FX86 |
|
300[5] |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
KBO — Cubewano |
unknown |
Selected objects between ≈300 and ≈200 km in radius
Satellites in this size range tend to be round (although Proteus is not), and TNOs are expected to be as well, assuming the estimated size is correct. The asteroid 10 Hygiea is not, and 2 Pallas and 4 Vesta are borderline.
Selected objects between 200 and 100 km in radius
Objects between 200 and 100 km in radius (400 and 200 km in diameter). The largest of these may lie above the boundary for hydrostatic equilibrium, but most are irregular. Most of the trans-Neptunian objects listed with a radius smaller than 200 km have "assumed sizes based on a generic albedo of 0.09" since they are too far away, with existing instruments, to directly measure their sizes. Values relative to Earth are not included beyond this point. Mass switches from 1021 kg to 1018 kg (Zg), with Mimas double listed as example of unit shift. Main-belt asteroids have orbital elements constrained by (2.0 AU < a < 3.2 AU; q > 1.666 AU) according to JPL Solar System Dynamics (JPLSSD).[33] This is not complete, missing many poorly known TNOs.[34]
Selected objects between 100 and 50 km in radius
Objects 100 and 50 km in radius (200 km to 100 km in average diameter). This currently includes most objects in the asteroid belt and moons of the gas giants in this size range, but is missing many newly discovered objects in the outer Solar System such as here.[34] Asteroid spectral types are mostly Tholen, but some might be SMASS.
Examples of objects between 50 km and 20 km in radius
There are easily tens of thousands of objects 50 km in radius or smaller, but only a fraction have been explored. The number of digits is not an endorsement of significant figures. The table switches from ×1018 kg to ×1015 kg (Eg), and many of these mass values are assumed. (see also List of minor planets)
Examples of objects between 20 km and 1 km in radius
Examples of objects below 1 km (1000 m) in radius
In the asteroid belt alone there are estimated to be between 1.1 and 1.9 million objects with a radius above 0.5 km,[128] many of which are in the range 0.5–1.0 km. Countless more have a radius below 0.5 km.
Very few objects in this size range have been explored or even imaged. The exceptions are objects that have been visited by a probe, or have passed close enough to Earth to be viewed by large telescopes. Radius is by mean geometric radius. Number of digits not an endorsement of significant figures. Mass scale shifts from × 1015 to 1012 kg, which is 1015 grams (Petagram - Pg).
Currently most of the objects of mass between 109 kg to 1012 kg (less than 1000 teragrams (Tg)) listed here are near-Earth asteroids. (See also: list of NEAs by distance from Sun.) Note that 1994 WR12 possesses less mass than the Great Pyramid of Giza, 5.9 × 109 kg.
For more about really small objects in the Solar System see meteoroid, micrometeoroid, and interplanetary dust cloud.
Surface gravity
The surface gravity at the equator of a body can in most cases be accurately calculated using Newton's law of universal gravitation and centrifugal force.
The gravitational acceleration at the equator is given by Newton's law of universal gravitation. The formula that follows from this law is:
where
- ag is the magnitude of the gravitational acceleration
- G is the gravitational constant
- m is the mass of the celestial body
- r is the equatorial radius of the celestial body (if this varies significantly, the mean equatorial radius is used)
The magnitude of the outward acceleration due to centrifugal force is given by
where
- T is the rotation period of the celestial body
The surface gravity at the equator is then given by
Closely imaged objects
Notes
- † Using equatorial radius and assuming body is spherical
- ‡ Using three radii and assuming body is spheroid
- * Radius is known only very approximately
- R Radius has been determined by various methods, such as optical (Hubble), thermal (Spitzer), or direct imaging via spacecraft
- 9 Unknown radius, generic assumed albedo of 0.09
- $ Well studied asteroid or moon where the dimensions and mass are very well known. Asteroid sizes and masses taken from James Baer's (Bio) personal website.
- M Mass has been determined by perturbation. For asteroids, see James Baer's personal website.
- A Assumed mass
- P Mass calculated assuming Pluto's density of 2.0 g/cm3
- Note: For many of the well-determined moons, radii were taken from the JPL Solar System Dynamics page.
- O Radius has been determined with Asteroid occultation
References
- ^ Mike Brown. "The Dwarf Planets". CalTech. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://www.gps.caltech.edu/~mbrown/dwarfplanets/. Retrieved 2008-09-25.
- ^ D. T. Britt; G. J. Consol-magno SJ; W. J. Merline (2006). "Small Body Density and Porosity: New Data, New Insights". Lunar and Planetary Science XXXVII. http://www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/lpsc2006/pdf/2214.pdf. Retrieved 2008-12-16.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak "Planetary Satellite Physical Parameters". JPL (Solar System Dynamics). 2008-10-24. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/?sat_phys_par. Retrieved 2008-12-16.
- ^ a b Williams, Dr. David R. (2007-11-23). "Uranian Satellite Fact Sheet". NASA (National Space Science Data Center). Archived from the original on 2010-01-18. http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/planetary/factsheet/uraniansatfact.html. Retrieved 2008-12-12.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Mike Brown, How many dwarf planets are there in the outer solar system?[1]
- ^ Densities of those KBOs whose masses are uncertain are assumed to be 2.0 in line with Pluto
- ^ Jacobson, R. A.; Antreasian, P. G.; Bordi, J. J.; Criddle, K. E.; et al. (December 2006). "The gravity field of the saturnian system from satellite observations and spacecraft tracking data". The Astronomical Journal 132 (6): 2520–2526. Bibcode 2006AJ....132.2520J. doi:10.1086/508812.
- ^ "Size, density, albedo and atmosphere limit of dwarf planet Eris from a stellar occultation". European Planetary Science Congress Abstracts 6. 2011. http://meetingorganizer.copernicus.org/EPSC-DPS2011/EPSC-DPS2011-137-8.pdf. Retrieved 2011-09-14.
- ^ M.E. Brown and E.L. Schaller (2007). "The Mass of Dwarf Planet Eris". Science 316 (5831): 1585. Bibcode 2007Sci...316.1585B. doi:10.1126/science.1139415. PMID 17569855. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/316/5831/1585.
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- ^ Porco, C. C.; et al. (2007). "Saturn's Small Inner Satellites: Clues to Their Origins". Science 318 (5856): 1602–1607. Bibcode 2007Sci...318.1602P. doi:10.1126/science.1143977. PMID 18063794. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...318.1602P.
- ^ "Comet 9P/Tempel 1". The Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://www.planetary.org/explore/topics/asteroids_and_comets/tempel1.html. Retrieved 2008-12-16.
- ^ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 9P/Tempel 1". 2008-10-25 last obs. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=9P. Retrieved 2008-12-16.
- ^ Cassini Equinox Mission: Thrym (accessed October 2010) Archived 12 February 2011 at WebCite
- ^ Alan Chamberlin. "JPL Small-Body Database Browser". Ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=Toutatis;orb=0;cov=0;log=0;cad=0#phys_par. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
- ^ "Jupiter, in Astronomy"; The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition, 2004. 52323 pgs.
- ^ H. U. Keller, et all - E-Type Asteroid (2867) Steins as Imaged by OSIRIS on Board Rosetta - Science 8 January 2010: Vol. 327. no. 5962, pp. 190 - 193 DOI: 10.1126/science.1179559
- ^ 4.8 km diameter NASA JPL Small-Body Database Browser on 19P/Borrelly
- ^ NASA JPL Small-Body Database Browser on 2P/Encke
- ^ NASA JPL Small-Body Database Browser on C/1996 B2
- ^ "Comet Hyakutake Home Page (JPL)". .jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/comet/hyakutake/index.html. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
- ^ Alan Chamberlin. "JPL Small-Body Database Browser". Ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?ID=c00081_0. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
- ^ Source: Porco et al. 2005 Archived 12 February 2011 at WebCite
- ^ "Cloudbait Observatory Gallery - Comet Holmes". Cloudbait.com. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://www.cloudbait.com/gallery/comet/holmes.html. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
- ^ Alan Chamberlin. "JPL Small-Body Database Browser". Ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=4055%20Magellan;orb=0;cov=0;log=0;cad=0#phys_par. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
- ^ NASA JPL Small-Body Database Browser on 6178 (1986 DA)
- ^ a b Roman Numerals
- ^ Tedesco, Edward; Metcalfe, Leo (April 4, 2002). "New study reveals twice as many asteroids as previously believed" (Press release). European Space Agency. http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=7925. Retrieved 2009-10-20.
- ^ Minor Planet No. 100,000 Named for Space Age 50th Anniversary (2007) - Space Ref, Quote: "..about a mile in size"
- ^ [JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 100000 Astronautica]
- ^ Alan Chamberlin. "JPL Small-Body Database Browser". Ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=4769%20Castalia;orb=0;cov=0;log=0;cad=0#phys_par. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
- ^ "(4769) Castalia." Wikipédia, l'encyclopédie libre. 20 jan 2010, 16:37 UTC. 11 oct 2010, 16:48 <http://fr.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=(4769)_Castalia&oldid=49048108>
- ^ 3000 x 10^9 kg
- ^ a b Lisse, C. M.; Fernandez; Reach; Bauer; A'Hearn; Farnham; et al. (2009). "Spitzer Space Telescope Observations of the Nucleus of Comet 103P/Hartley 2". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific 121: 968–975. Bibcode 2009PASP..121..968L. doi:10.1086/605546. http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/605546.
- ^ "JPL Small-Body Database Browser: 14827 Hypnos (1986 JK)". Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=Hypnos. Retrieved 2008-02-08.
- ^ Whitman, Kathryn; Alessandro Morbidelli and Robert Jedicke (2006). The Size-Frequency Distribution of Dormant Jupiter Family Comets. arXiv:astro-ph/0603106. Bibcode 2006Icar..183..101W. doi:10.1016/j.icarus.2006.02.016.
- ^ 2062 Aten (this version)
- ^ Alan Chamberlin. "JPL Small-Body Database Browser". Ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi#top. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
- ^ a b c Based on an assumed density of 2.6 g/cm3 as given at the NASA NEO impact risk page http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/risk/index.html Archived 12 February 2011 at WebCite
- ^ Alan Chamberlin. "JPL Small-Body Database Browser". Ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=4660%20Nereus;orb=0;cov=0;log=0;cad=0#phys_par. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
- ^ BBC - Giant asteroid passes near Earth - 9 November 2011
- ^ The Herschel Space Observatory catches a glimpse of the minor planet during its rendezvous with Earth (November 17, 2011)
- ^ JPL Small-Body Database Browser (2005 YU55)
- ^ "NASA Scientists Get First Images of Earth Flyby Asteroid". NASA/JPL. 2008-01-25. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news.cfm?release=2008-014. Retrieved 2008-01-26.
- ^ [http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/risk/1994wr12.html NASA - 1994 WR12 Earth Impact Risk Summary - 2011]
- ^ a b c BBC News - Record spin for newfound asteroid (2008) Archived 12 February 2011 at WebCite
- ^ Alan Chamberlin. "JPL Small-Body Database Browser". Ssd.jpl.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2011-02-12. http://ssd.jpl.nasa.gov/sbdb.cgi?sstr=1998%20KY26;orb=0;cov=0;log=0;cad=0#phys_par. Retrieved 2011-01-04.
Further reading
External links